Version:
March 97
GEOGRAPHY AND POPULATION
Lebanon, with a total
area of 10 400 km2, is situated east of the Mediterranean Sea and stretches
about 210 km along the coast and 50 km inland. It is bordered by Syria in the
north and east and by Israel in the south. Administratively it is divided into
six Mohafazats or provinces.
Topographically, Lebanon
can be divided from west to east into four parallel parts:
The cultivable area is
estimated at 360 000 ha, or 35% of the total area. During the period 1992-94,
the total cultivated area was estimated at 189 206 ha, of which 104 120 ha
consisted of annual crops and 85 086 ha consisted of permanent crops, mainly
fruit trees and olives. The Ministry of Agriculture is planning to start up a
national agricultural census in 1996, the last one being carried out in 1970.
According to the 1970 census there were 140 000 farm holdings with 63% having
less than 2 ha of land, which means that agriculture is characterized by land
fragmentation. However, there are indications of a decrease in the number of
very small farms and in 1985 it was reported that about 46% of the farm
holdings had less than 2 ha of land.
The total population is
about 3 million (1995), of which only 13% is rural. The annual demographic
growth rate is estimated at 2%. The agricultural labour force declined from 25%
in 1967 to less than 9% in 1990. However, agriculture remains an important
source of income in rural areas and although it is difficult to estimate the
number of full-time farmers, most families have agriculture as a part-time
activity. Seasonal labour represents between 30 and 40% of the present
agricultural labour force. In 1992, agriculture accounted for an estimated 8.8%
of GDP and for 30% of total export earnings.
CLIMATE
AND WATER RESOURCES
Climate
The climate of Lebanon
is typically Mediterranean, with heavy rains in the winter season (January to
May) and dry and arid conditions in the remaining 7 months of the year.
However, the influence of the Mediterranean Sea, the topographic features, as
well as the Syrian Desert in the north create a variety of micro-climates
within the country with contrasting temperatures and rainfall distribution. The
average annual temperature is 20°C on the coast (ranging from 13°C in winter to
27°C in summer), 16°C in the Beeka valley (ranging from 5°C in winter to 26°C
in summer) and less than 10°C at higher elevations in the mountain zones
(ranging from 0°C in winter to 18°C in summer). Average annual rainfall is
estimated at 823 mm, varying from 600 to 900 mm along the coastal zones to 1
400 mm on the high mountains and decreasing to 400 mm in the eastern parts and
less than 200 mm in the north-east. Above 2 000 metres, precipitation is
essentially niveous and helps to sustain a base yield for about 2 000 springs
during the dry period. Rainfall occurs on eighty to ninety days a year, mainly
between October and April. About 75% of the annual stream flow occurs in the
five-month period from January to May, 16% from June to July and only 9% in the
remaining five months from August to December.
Water
resources
In total, there are
about 40 major streams in Lebanon and, based on the hydrographic system, the
country can be divided into five regions:
Lebanon has a relatively
favourable position as far as its rainfall and water resources are concerned,
but constraints for development consist of the limited water availability
during the seven dry summer months. Annual internal renewable water resources
are estimated at about 4.8 km3. Annual surface runoff is estimated at 4.1 km3
and groundwater recharge at 3.2 km3, of which 2.5 km3 constitutes the baseflow
of the rivers. About 1 km3 of this flow comes from over 2 000 springs with
about 10-15 l/s of average unit yield, sustaining a perennial flow for 17 of
the total of 40 major streams in the country.
Water
flows
Lebanon being at a
higher elevation than its neighbours has practically no incoming surface water
flow. A contribution of 74 million m3/year to the El Kebir river, to the north,
is estimated to be generated by the 707 km2 bordering Syrian catchment areas.
There might also be some groundwater inflow from these areas, but no figures on
quantities are available. Surface water flow to Syria is estimated at 510
million m3/year through the El-Assi (Orontes)) river and the bordering El Kebir
river. A recent (informal) agreement between Lebanon and Syria on the Orontes
river has led to a share of 80 million m3/year for Lebanon and the remainder
for Syria. Surface water flow to Israel is estimated at 160 million m3/year, of
which about 138 million m3 through the Hasbani river including a contribution
of 30 million m3 from its tributary, the Wazzani spring. Annual groundwater
outflow is estimated at 1 030 million m3, of which 130 million m3 to Syria, 180
million m3 to Israel and 720 million m3 to the sea.
The relative importance
of groundwater flow to the sea and the difficulties related to its control,
added to the difficult geological conditions of most of the investigated sites
for storage dams, make the manageable resources of Lebanon certainly much lower
than the global figure of 4.8 km3/year. The most realistic figure recognized
does not exceed 2.2-2.5 km3/year.
Dams
The Karaoun dam on the
Upper Litani river is the largest, with a storage capacity of 220 million m3
and an effective storage of 160 million m3 from year to year. It regulates the
downstream flow of the Litani river for power generation and irrigation. The
Bisri dam on the Awali river is currently at the final design stage for a
storage capacity of 128 million m3 and is intended mainly for supplying water
to Greater Beirut. The Kardalé dam on the middle reach of the Litani river, also to give a
storage capacity of 128 million m3, has been postponed at the preliminary
design stage, in view of the prevailing adverse security situation in the
southern border region.
The Green Plan, which is
a public authority established in 1963 responsible for the development of water
reservoirs, and the private sector, have already developed hundreds of small
earth and concrete storage pounds, with a maximum per unit capacity of 0.2
million m3. During the period 1964-1992 the Green Plan led to a total of 3.5
million m3 of earth pounds and 0.35 million m3 of concrete pounds.
The Litani River
Authority implemented three hillside stock ponds in the early 1970s for a total
storage capacity of about 1.8 million m3.
Wastewater
About 165 million m3 of
wastewater was produced in 1991, of which 130 million m3 of domestic origin and
35 million m3 of industrial origin. There is infiltration from water from
cesspools to groundwater and a direct outflow of sewerage water to the natural
watercourses, especially in the inland villages and communities where it is
commonly directed to watercourses. In 1991, the quantity of treated wastewater
was roughly estimated at 4 million m3, the quantity reused at 2 million m3, for
some informal irrigation. Some illicit irrigation from untreated wastewater is
practised.
See page from the water
supply networks, of between 35 and 50%, is almost all infiltrated to the
aquifers and extracted again via tubewells, especially in the Greater Beirut
Metropolitan area.
Water
withdrawal
In 1994, water
withdrawal for agricultural, domestic and industrial purposes was esti-mated at
1 293 million m3, of which almost 68% for agricultural purposes (Figure 1). The
assessment of agricultural water use is based on a water use of 11 200 m3/ha
per year from surface water and 8 575 m3/ha per year from groundwater. In 1991,
about 700 million m3 was estimated to be used for hydropower, with direct
restitution to the natural river courses.
IRRIGATION
AND DRAINAGE DEVELOPMENT
Irrigation potential,
based on soil and water resources, is estimated at 177 500 ha. In 1993, the
total area equipped for irrigation was estimated at 87 500 ha, of which 67 500
ha for perennial irrigation and 20 000 ha for seasonal irrigation (spring).
Surface irrigation,
mainly basin and furrow irrigation, is practised on 53 500 ha. It usually
comprises diversion structures or simple intakes on streams or springs, open
concrete main canals and earth or concrete secondary canals. Sprinkler
irrigation is practised on 21 000 ha, especially for potatoes and sugar beet in
the Bekaa Central Plain. Micro-irrigation is practised on 13 000 ha, especially
in North Bekaa (Qaa region) and in the coastal region (Figure 2).
The main source of
irrigation water is the Litani river and the Litani-Awali complex of water
resources. In 1993, it was estimated that 54.3% was irrigated from surface
water and 45.7% from groundwater (artesian wells, recharge wells and springs)
(Figure 3). The use of groundwater for irrigation has increased in the past few
years in view of the delay in the implementation of governmental schemes.
Individual farmers in the schemes who face water shortages are increasingly
relying on supplementary supply from groundwater by means of private wells and
in 1992-95 about 2 000 wells were added to an overall total of more than 10 000
wells, especially in the southern coastal hills and in North and Middle Bekaa
Central Plain.
The public irrigation
subsector, essentially unchanged since 1970, consists of about 5 large-scale
schemes (> 1 000 ha) and 50 medium and small-scale schemes (Figure 4). The
total number of households in the irrigation schemes is estimated at 58 500.
Most of the schemes are old, poorly maintained and in an advanced state of
deterioration. It is estimated that most of the area irrigated by surface water
needs rehabilitation. The private irrigation subsector continues to develop to
a much larger and dynamic extent, based essentially on tubewells.
The average cost for
irrigation development ranges from $US 2 500/ha for small schemes, $US 3 750/ha
for medium schemes and between $US 4 000 and 7 000/ha for large schemes.
Estimates of operation and maintenance costs are $US 40/ha per year for small
schemes with gravity surface irrigation. As regards medium schemes, these cost
from $US 100/ha per year for grabity surface irrigation to $US 600/ha per year
for private wells and, for large schemes, from $US 400/ha per year for private
pumping in rivers to $US 600/ha per year for tubewells.
In governmental
irrigation systems, irrigation water is charged at a flat rate per planted
area, except in the modern pressurized irrigation schemes of the Litani River
Authority in South Bekaa and Saida-Jezzine where volumetric metering is
provided. At present, for the Qasmieh-Ras El Ain coastal scheme, water charges
are fixed at $US 260/ha for farmers who irrigate by gravity directly from the
canal. In the Danneyeh scheme and the Akkar scheme, in the north, water charges
range from $US 30 to 125/ha.
In the period 1992-94
the major irrigated crops were vegetables, fruit trees, potatoes and, to a
lesser extent, cereals (maize, wheat, barley) and sugar beet (Figure 5). The
average yield for irrigated wheat and barley was estimated at 5.0 tons/ha, as
against 2.2 tons/ha for rainfed wheat and barley.
The amount of
agricultural land suffering from drainage problems is fairly limited and is
mainly in South Bekaa (about 5 000 ha) and in the Boquaia Plain in Akkar (about
4 000 ha). The area benefiting from improved drainage through open ditches and
river calibration was estimated at about 10 800 ha in 1993. River calibration
is also done to protect against flood damage, especially over the Litani river,
upstream of Karaoun Lake, where the drainage and calibration works realized in
the 1970s helped to alleviate the flood damage on about 1 500 ha.
INSTITUTIONAL
ENVIRONMENT
The institutions with
direct decision-making authority for irrigation and water resources development
and management are the Ministry of Hydraulic and Electrical Resources (MHER)
and, under its responsibility, the Litani River Authority (LRA) which is in
charge of implementing the two most important ongoing projects, in South Bekaa
(21 500 ha) and Southern Lebanon (30 000 ha), and of exploiting the potential
Qasmieh - Ras El Ain coastal irrigation scheme (4 000 ha). Also under the
responsibility of MHER, there are 25 local irrigation authorities, each
exploiting a small or medium irrigation project on areas of between 10 and 300
ha, and 126 local irrigation committees, which were instituted by Ministerial
Decrees during the period 1984-1990. An institutional plan is under way to
merge these authorities and committees into five main authorities, at the
Mohafazat, or provincial, level (excluding Beirut).
The Council for
Development and Reconstruction (CDR) is, at present, the most powerful
institution in irrigation rehabilitation and development. It manages a $US 58
million loan from IBRD for the rehabilitation and modernization of the 5 large
irrigation schemes and about 28 medium schemes, for a total area of about 43
000 ha. It also manages a $US 13 million loan from IFAD for the on-farm support
activities connected to the above projects.
Responsibilities for
agricultural development lie within the following administrations: the Ministry
of Agriculture (MOA) and, under its responsibility, the Agricultural Research
Institute (IRAL) and the Green Plan (GP). MOA has recently issued institutional
regulations to allow autonomy to the GP, with responsibility for land
preservation, land reclamation, rural roads construction, small hydraulic
development of hillside stock ponds, and schemes and farm-level infrastructure
works. In addition, MOA has recently established a new autonomous institution,
called 'The Institution for Alternate Crops', centring on the Baalbeck-Hermel
traditional region of illicit crops.
Water laws and
regulations on water are mostly outdated and, at present, water rights
constitute a constant source of disputes. Groundwater is tapped by thousands of
informal private wells with no licences, no water metering and no charges or
taxes for the tapped volumes.
Many sectorial and
regional water resources planning studies are under way by CDR, MHER and LRA.
The establishment of the National Water Master Plan is also foreseen. The most
important decree for regional water resources planning is the Decree No 14522
of 10 May 1970 which organizes the allocation of the available water resources
south of the Beirut river up to the southern international borders and up to
the 800 metres elevation on the western skirts. This decree, however, requires
updating.
TRENDS
IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
The development of
potential future irrigation aims at increasing the actual area of 87 500 ha up
to the potential soil and water ceiling of 177 500 ha, concentrated mainly in
South Lebanon, the Bekaa Plain and the northern coastal areas (Akkar).
The irrigation potential
in Lebanon is linked to the physical mobilization of water and to the
rehabilitation and modernization of irrigation infrastructures. An increase in
the irrigated area can be achieved from surface water resources through the
construction of storage dams and inter-regional transfers, for example the
Khardalé dam over
the middle Litani river (now postponed) and the 'Canal 800' conveyor for the
irrigation of 15 000 ha in South Lebanon. More than 83 sites for possible dam
construction, with a total capacity of 873 million m3, have already been
prospected and are recommended for further investigation.
Future drainage
development involves completing and achieving the calibration of the Litani
river and its seven tributaries in the South Bekaa Plain, in order to reclaim
about 1 500 ha of the waterlogged area, and to facilitate the drainage works in
another risky area of 3 500 ha which is also exposed to frequent floods from rivers.
Environmental issues, such as the preservation of marshy lowlands for migratory
birds, should also be given consideration.
MAIN
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
CDR/MHER/BTD-CADRES-Consulting
Engineers. 1994. Rapid initial assessment of small and medium irrigation
schemes in Lebanon. CDR, Beirut.
FAO. 1994. Irrigation
rehabilitation and modernization project: Preparation report. FAO Investment
Centre/World Bank Cooperative Programme Report No. 5/94 CP-LEB 8. Rome.
FAO. 1995. Agricultural
infrastructure development project: Preparation report. FAO Investment
Centre/World Bank Cooperative Programme Report No. 106/95 CP-LEB 9. Rome.
Geadah, Adib. 1993.
Projet d'irrigation de la Bekaa-Sud: Etude de factibilité, document de travail en vue de
la reprise des activités. Litani River Authority, Beirut.
International Bechtel
Inc. and Dar Al-Handasah (Shair and Partners). September 91 - June 1993.
Recovery planning for reconstruction and development of Lebanon (Phases 1 and
2). Report No. L9125/1-2. Beirut.
Jaber, Bassam. 1994. The
water problem in Lebanon. Conference on the problems of water in the Middle
East. Centre for strategic studies, research and documentation, Beirut.
Jaber, Bassam. 1995. The
water resources in Lebanon. Conference on the environmental management for
sustainable development in Lebanon. UNEP/LNCSR, Beirut.
Litani River Authority,
Directorate of Studies. 1993. The Master Plan and the 15-year plan for the
equipment and the exploitation of the Litani River Basin. Litani River
Authority, Beirut.
Saadé Riad. 1995. 42ème
rapport annuel sur la production agricole au Liban. Centre de Recherches et
d'Etudes pour l'Agriculture au Liban (CREAL), Beirut.
World Bank. 1994. Irrigation rehabilitation and
modernization project: Staff appraisal report. Report No. 13012-LE. Washington
DC.